Urinary Biomarkers in Parkinson's Disease: A Structured Integrative Review of Pathophysiological Pathways.
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BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by complex and interconnected pathophysiological mechanisms, including mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, lysosomal impairment, and altered neurotransmitter metabolism. Unlike cerebrospinal fluid or blood, urine offers a truly non-invasive source of biomarkers, reflecting systemic metabolic changes and renal protein excretion linked to neurodegeneration. This review aims to critically synthesize current evidence on urinary biomarkers in PD and to organize this heterogeneous literature into pathophysiologically meaningful domains. METHODS: A comprehensive literature search of human studies investigating urinary biomarkers in PD was performed. Eligible studies were comprehensively analyzed and classified according to dominant biological pathways. To facilitate interpretation, findings were organized into six thematic domains: genetic and protein-based biomarkers; metabolic pathways and mitochondrial dysfunction; oxidative stress and neuroinflammation; gut-brain-axis-related metabolites; hormonal and systemic biomarkers; and emerging exploratory markers. Results were summarized in domain-specific tables and integrated using a conceptual framework. RESULTS: A total of 32 human studies met the inclusion criteria, revealing diverse urinary molecular signatures associated with PD across multiple biological domains. Genetic and protein-based markers, including LRRK2-related proteins, α-synuclein species, and lysosomal lipids, showed potential for disease stratification. Metabolomic studies consistently identified alterations in acylcarnitines, organic acids, and amino acid metabolism, reflecting mitochondrial dysfunction. Biomarkers related to oxidative stress, immune activation, gut microbiota metabolism, and hormonal regulation further highlighted the systemic nature of PD. However, most individual biomarkers lacked disease specificity and exhibited methodological heterogeneity. CONCLUSIONS: Current evidence supports urine as a valuable source of systemic biomarkers reflecting multiple pathophysiological processes in PD. While single urinary markers remain insufficient for clinical application, integrated omics-based approaches-particularly metabolomics and peptidomics/proteomics-hold promise for identifying combinatorial biomarker signatures. Future longitudinal and standardized studies are required to enhance specificity and translational potential for non-invasive diagnosis and disease monitoring in PD.